This blog by Ranga Gworo and CSRF highlights the conflict risks of a different type of flooding in specific contexts. Using the case of Lafon, the blog explores the impact of pluvial flooding in the area, and shares reflections on considerations for conflict sensitive flood response. Photo credit to Paul Ugila, photo taken in Lafon depicting a bad road due to floods.
Amid the protracted economic crisis and political uncertainty, South Sudan faced unprecedented flooding in 2024 due to the rise in water level from the Lake Victoria,[1] which was linked to high level of precipitation and climate and climate change. This wave of floods led to the displacement of approximately 1.4 million people and to the outbreak of cholera.[2] So far in 2025, South Sudan has been hit by a heatwave, with temperatures reaching 45 degree Celsius,[3] leading to temporary school closure across the country[4]. With the rainy season around the corner, concerns are growing again as to the serious environmental threat which flooding may bring this year.
This blog examines the factors that make Lafon particularly vulnerable to pluvial floods and the related impact, including on displacement and conflict. Finally, the blog provides some suggestions on how to integrate a conflict sensitivity lens to any response plans to areas affected by pluvial floods, including Lafon, Maban, Pibor, Mundri, and Raja.
Fluvial and pluvial flooding
To prepare for the ensuing floods, the government and its partners launched the 2024 flood response plan[5], which focused on creating awareness, building dykes and supporting relocation plans. (An After-Action Review is currently underway to assess the effectiveness of last year’s response.)
There exist two main types of flooding – fluvial and pluvial floods.[6] Fluvial (river) floods are caused by overflow of a river, with water surpassing its water course, while pluvial (surface) flood are caused by heavy rainfall that flows into lowland areas. While the flood response covers both fluvial and pluvial floods, areas affected by pluvial flooding, such as Lafon presents specific flood needs and conflict sensitivity issues. Thus, understanding how flooding differs across specific contexts can better inform a flood response plan that is tailored towards specific needs.
Although both types of floods are destructive, studies have shown that pluvial floods are more destructive than fluvial floods due to its intensity[7] and remoteness from a river.[8] However, South Sudan is predominately affected by fluvial floods[9] And some of affected-areas also have coincided with some of the locations in the Upper Nile region, which have been among the worst affected by armed conflict. As a result, areas affected by pluvial floods such as Lafon, Maban, Mundri and Raja have appeared to local communities to fall below the radar. Yet, these areas endure unique conflict sensitivity risks and challenges. For example, last year the pluvial floods displaced at least 18,000 people from Lafon County, and damaged eight health facilities and schools and a number of water points.[10] With no response to this type of flood, a young man from Lafon desperately said, “If our Members of Parliament (MPs) do not reverse the continued displacement of our flood-affect population from Lafon to urban centers, they will soon become MPs for animals” implying that if nothing is done to address pluvial flooding, in his view Lafon will be completely deserted, as thousands continue to flee from the flood-induced hunger.
The displacement and conflict implications of pluvial floods in Lafon
One area that is prone to pluvial floods is Lafon County in Eastern Equatoria state. Bordered by Central Equatoria from the West, Jonglei State from the North and Pibor from the Northeast, the area is affected yearly by pluvial floods due to its topography and the effects of climate change. It is a lowland area and is surrounded by high grounds, including Lopit Hill from the East and Kudo Hills from the South. The area is susceptible to flooding due to the overflow of water from the high grounds. This leads to the flooding of the area, including its two existing streams, the year-round Kiniti river (locally known as Gila or Col) and the seasonal Host River (locally called Adondi). Consequently, the floods displaced thousands of people, destroyed many homes and disrupted livelihoods, including farms and livestock. Due to its vulnerability to flooding, Lafon has suffered from the intense effects of pluvial floods for nearly four years now.[11] Last year alone, thousands of people from Lafon have fled to urban centers, such as Torit and Juba in search of food due to failed crops. [12]
Despite its devastating impact on livelihoods and assets, pluvial floods also contribute to tensions among the displacement populations. For example, many affected populations face the dilemma as to where to locate, with one group favouring one area over another. While some areas, such Ukwenya boma of Marguna payam have begun to relocate to high grounds (Dongo) without any external support,[13] other flood-affected locations, such as Kuji boma of Kurumi payam are still locked in tensions, with some families relocating to Upuo boma of Pacidi payam and others staying. [14] The relocating populations are likely to face conflict over land as well as wildlife invasion.
Although communities of Lafon have long-standing methods to deal with flooding, especially building of dykes, their efforts have recently hampered by the lack of capacity and external support as well as recurrent and severe hunger. Some youth are either unable or are reluctant to build dykes, with some relocate to urban centers in search of alternative livelihoods. This lack of capacity and ensuing hunger has led to rifts between families and community members as they are unable to work together to mitigate the effects of flooding.[15]
Pluvial flooding also exacerbates human-wildlife conflict as it may accentuate proximity due to reduced areas of dry land. For example, incidents of snake bites reportedly increase in rainy seasons, as snakes encroach into settlements that are inhabited by people.[16] For example, a 14-year boy died after he was bitten by snake at Lafon Center last year.[17] Besides that flooding has led to wildlife migration, forcing animals to encroach into farms. For instance, last year Lafon has witnessed unprecedented invasion by wild pigs that led to the destruction of farms.[18] While the scale of the destruction by the wild pigs is still unknown, some anecdotal evidences suggest that they might have contribute to the shortfall in crop production. This raises the risk of potential hunger in Lafon county this year.
Conflict sensitivity considerations relating to pluvial floods response
Due to the devastating impact of floods, especially on livelihoods, affected populations have relocated to urban centers. Consequently, some reportedly resort to negative coping strategies.[19] Thus, aid actors need to identify, prevent and mitigate negative coping strategies among flood affected victims through addressing the risks and providing alternative livelihoods means.
As the populations in three out of four payams (Marguna, Burgilo, and Kurumi) of Lafon county are currently overwhelmed by flooding,[20] aid agencies need to collaborate with local communities in providing sustainable flood response, and manage existing flood-induced conflicts, such as competition over land. To do this, aid agencies need to strengthen existing local flood response mechanisms, such as building dykes as well existing conflict and dispute resolution mechanisms.
Any long-term plan to deal with floods through building road, dykes or an upstream dam in the should take due consideration of impacts on floods, including in downstream areas. This means that the implications of such projects should be well-studied, informed by community consultations and adequately assessed to avoid unintended consequences on downstream areas, especially on livelihoods. Otherwise, these infrastructural projects, such as the building of road, dykes or dams can further exacerbate floods and fuel conflict,[21] Besides disrupting livelihoods and leading to forced displacement.
While the flood response plan covered all areas affected by floods, there have been community perceptions that some areas are deprioritized due to their remoteness.[22] Aid actors need to ensure that flood response adapts to the specific contexts of these areas, as demonstrated by the case study of Lafon above, including the specific nature of pluvial flooding.
[1] Eye Radio (2024), ‘South Sudan warned to prepare for looming floods,’ May
[2] UNOCHA (2024), ‘South Sudan: Flood snapshots (as of 29 November 2024),’ November
[3] BBC (2025), ‘South Sudan heatwave: Extreme weather shuts schools and cuts power,’ Feb
[4] Ibid.
[5] Food Security Cluster (2024), ‘South Sudan flood preparedness and response plan 2024,’ June
[6] World Bank (2023). ‘ Flood risk modelling to support risk transfer: Challenges and opportunities in data-scarce contexts,’ Feb.
[7] The Flood People (2019), ‘River and surface water flooding: What is the difference?,’ June 2019
[8] The Flood Hubs (2022), ‘Surface water flooding: All you need to know,’ January 2022
[9] Easton-Calabria Evan (2024), ‘Possibilities and limitations of anticipatory action in complex crises: acting in advance of flooding in South Sudan,’ July 2024
[10] South Sudan, (2024), ‘Flooding situation flash update No 3 (as of 12 September 2024,’ September 2024
[11] CSRF (2024), ‘Lafon County’, April 2024
[12] The Community Radio (2022), ‘Raging floods destroy livelihoods in Lafon’, September
[13] Interview with elders at Ukwenya, Marguna payam, 16 March 2025
[14] An interview with aid worker in Lafon, 17 August 2024
[15] Consultation with eight elderly men in Lafon center on flooding, 18 August 2024
[16] Interview with a former chief, Lafon, 10 June 2024
[17] Consultation with a local trader in Lafon Center, 26 August 2024
[18] CSRF (2025), ‘Enhancing community-based social protection for sustainable use of aid in South Sudan: Guidance for conflict and context-sensitive aid,’ Feb.
[19] Global Protection Cluster (2024), ‘South Sudan protection analysis update,’ July 2024
[20] No1. Citizen (2024),’ Floods hit over 18,000 people in Lafon,’ August
[21] Social Science in Humanitarian Action Platform (2024), key considerations for responding to flooding in South Sudan through humanitarian, peace and development nexus, June
[22] Op. cit.
